From: Subject: "Spe Salvi" - Encyclical Letter of His Holiness Benedict XVI on Christian Hope Date: Wed, 17 Dec 2008 08:49:12 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C96024.55517260" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.5579 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C96024.55517260 Content-Type: text/html; charset="iso-8859-1" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20071130_spe-salvi_en.html "Spe Salvi" - Encyclical Letter of His Holiness = Benedict XVI on Christian Hope
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ENCYCLICAL = LETTER
SPE SALVI
OF THE SUPREME = PONTIFF
BENEDICT=20 XVI
TO THE BISHOPS
PRIESTS AND DEACONS
MEN AND WOMEN=20 RELIGIOUS
AND ALL THE LAY FAITHFUL
ON CHRISTIAN = HOPE

 

Introduction

1. =93SPE SALVI facti sumus=94=97in hope we were saved, = says Saint=20 Paul to the Romans, and likewise to us (Rom=20 8:24). According to the Christian faith, = =93redemption=94=97salvation=97is=20 not simply a given. Redemption is offered to us in the sense that = we have=20 been given hope, trustworthy hope, by virtue of which we can face = our=20 present: the present, even if it is arduous, can be lived and = accepted if=20 it leads towards a goal, if we can be sure of this goal, and if = this goal=20 is great enough to justify the effort of the journey. Now the = question=20 immediately arises: what sort of hope could ever justify the = statement=20 that, on the basis of that hope and simply because it exists, we = are=20 redeemed? And what sort of certainty is involved here?

Faith is Hope

2. Before turning our attention to these timely questions, we = must=20 listen a little more closely to the Bible's testimony on hope. = =93Hope=94, in=20 fact, is a key word in Biblical faith=97so much so that in several = passages=20 the words =93faith=94 and =93hope=94 seem interchangeable. Thus = the Letter to=20 the Hebrews closely links the =93fullness of faith=94 (10:22) = to =93the=20 confession of our hope without wavering=94 (10:23). Likewise, when = the=20 First Letter of Peter exhorts Christians to be always ready to = give an=20 answer concerning the logos=97the meaning and the = reason=97of their=20 hope (cf. 3:15), =93hope=94 is equivalent to =93faith=94. We see = how decisively=20 the self-understanding of the early Christians was shaped by their = having=20 received the gift of a trustworthy hope, when we compare the = Christian=20 life with life prior to faith, or with the situation of the = followers of=20 other religions. Paul reminds the Ephesians that before their = encounter=20 with Christ they were =93without hope and without God in the = world=94=20 (Eph 2:12). Of course he knew they had had gods, he knew = they had=20 had a religion, but their gods had proved questionable, and no = hope=20 emerged from their contradictory myths. Notwithstanding their = gods, they=20 were =93without God=94 and consequently found themselves in a dark = world,=20 facing a dark future. In nihil ab nihilo quam cito recidimus = (How=20 quickly we fall back from nothing to nothing)[1]: so says an epitaph of that period. In this = phrase we=20 see in no uncertain terms the point Paul was making. In the same = vein he=20 says to the Thessalonians: you must not =93grieve as others do who = have no=20 hope=94 (1 Th 4:13). Here too we see as a distinguishing = mark of=20 Christians the fact that they have a future: it is not that they = know the=20 details of what awaits them, but they know in general terms that = their=20 life will not end in emptiness. Only when the future is certain as = a=20 positive reality does it become possible to live the present as = well. So=20 now we can say: Christianity was not only =93good news=94=97the = communication of=20 a hitherto unknown content. In our language we would say: the = Christian=20 message was not only =93informative=94 but =93performative=94. = That means: the=20 Gospel is not merely a communication of things that can be = known=97it is one=20 that makes things happen and is life-changing. The dark door of = time, of=20 the future, has been thrown open. The one who has hope lives = differently;=20 the one who hopes has been granted the gift of a new life.

3. Yet at this point a question arises: in what does this hope = consist=20 which, as hope, is =93redemption=94? The essence of the answer is = given in the=20 phrase from the Letter to the Ephesians quoted above: the=20 Ephesians, before their encounter with Christ, were without hope = because=20 they were =93without God in the world=94. To come to know = God=97the true=20 God=97means to receive hope. We who have always lived with the = Christian=20 concept of God, and have grown accustomed to it, have almost = ceased to=20 notice that we possess the hope that ensues from a real encounter = with=20 this God. The example of a saint of our time can to some degree = help us=20 understand what it means to have a real encounter with this God = for the=20 first time. I am thinking of the African Josephine Bakhita, = canonized by=20 Pope John Paul II. She was born around 1869=97she herself did not = know the=20 precise date=97in Darfur in Sudan. At the age of nine, she was = kidnapped by=20 slave-traders, beaten till she bled, and sold five times in the=20 slave-markets of Sudan. Eventually she found herself working as a = slave=20 for the mother and the wife of a general, and there she was = flogged every=20 day till she bled; as a result of this she bore 144 scars = throughout her=20 life. Finally, in 1882, she was bought by an Italian merchant for = the=20 Italian consul Callisto Legnani, who returned to Italy as the = Mahdists=20 advanced. Here, after the terrifying =93masters=94 who had owned = her up to=20 that point, Bakhita came to know a totally different kind of = =93master=94=97in=20 Venetian dialect, which she was now learning, she used the name=20 =93paron=94 for the living God, the God of Jesus Christ. Up = to that=20 time she had known only masters who despised and maltreated her, = or at=20 best considered her a useful slave. Now, however, she heard that = there is=20 a =93paron=94 above all masters, the Lord of all lords, and = that this=20 Lord is good, goodness in person. She came to know that this Lord = even=20 knew her, that he had created her=97that he actually loved her. = She too was=20 loved, and by none other than the supreme =93Paron=94, = before whom all=20 other masters are themselves no more than lowly servants. She was = known=20 and loved and she was awaited. What is more, this master had = himself=20 accepted the destiny of being flogged and now he was waiting for = her =93at=20 the Father's right hand=94. Now she had =93hope=94 =97no longer = simply the modest=20 hope of finding masters who would be less cruel, but the great = hope: =93I am=20 definitively loved and whatever happens to me=97I am awaited by = this Love.=20 And so my life is good.=94 Through the knowledge of this hope she = was=20 =93redeemed=94, no longer a slave, but a free child of God. She = understood=20 what Paul meant when he reminded the Ephesians that previously = they were=20 without hope and without God in the world=97without hope = because=20 without God. Hence, when she was about to be taken back to = Sudan,=20 Bakhita refused; she did not wish to be separated again from her=20 =93Paron=94. On 9 January 1890, she was baptized and = confirmed and=20 received her first Holy Communion from the hands of the Patriarch = of=20 Venice. On 8 December 1896, in Verona, she took her vows in the=20 Congregation of the Canossian Sisters and from that time onwards, = besides=20 her work in the sacristy and in the porter's lodge at the convent, = she=20 made several journeys round Italy in order to promote the = missions: the=20 liberation that she had received through her encounter with the = God of=20 Jesus Christ, she felt she had to extend, it had to be handed on = to=20 others, to the greatest possible number of people. The hope born = in her=20 which had =93redeemed=94 her she could not keep to herself; this = hope had to=20 reach many, to reach everybody.

The concept of faith-based hope in the New = Testament=20 and the early Church

4. We have raised the question: can our encounter with the God = who in=20 Christ has shown us his face and opened his heart be for us too = not just=20 =93informative=94 but =93performative=94=97that is to say, can it = change our lives,=20 so that we know we are redeemed through the hope that it = expresses? Before=20 attempting to answer the question, let us return once more to the = early=20 Church. It is not difficult to realize that the experience of the = African=20 slave-girl Bakhita was also the experience of many in the period = of=20 nascent Christianity who were beaten and condemned to slavery.=20 Christianity did not bring a message of social revolution like = that of the=20 ill-fated Spartacus, whose struggle led to so much bloodshed. = Jesus was=20 not Spartacus, he was not engaged in a fight for political = liberation like=20 Barabbas or Bar- Kochba. Jesus, who himself died on the Cross, = brought=20 something totally different: an encounter with the Lord of all = lords, an=20 encounter with the living God and thus an encounter with a hope = stronger=20 than the sufferings of slavery, a hope which therefore transformed = life=20 and the world from within. What was new here can be seen with the = utmost=20 clarity in Saint Paul's Letter to Philemon. This is a very = personal=20 letter, which Paul wrote from prison and entrusted to the runaway = slave=20 Onesimus for his master, Philemon. Yes, Paul is sending the slave = back to=20 the master from whom he had fled, not ordering but asking: =93I = appeal to=20 you for my child ... whose father I have become in my imprisonment = ... I=20 am sending him back to you, sending my very heart ... perhaps this = is why=20 he was parted from you for a while, that you might have him back = for ever,=20 no longer as a slave but more than a slave, as a beloved brother = ...=94=20 (Philem 10-16). Those who, as far as their civil status is=20 concerned, stand in relation to one an other as masters and = slaves,=20 inasmuch as they are members of the one Church have become = brothers and=20 sisters=97this is how Christians addressed one another. By virtue = of their=20 Baptism they had been reborn, they had been given to drink of the = same=20 Spirit and they received the Body of the Lord together, alongside = one=20 another. Even if external structures remained unaltered, this = changed=20 society from within. When the Letter to the Hebrews says = that=20 Christians here on earth do not have a permanent homeland, but = seek one=20 which lies in the future (cf. Heb 11:13-16; Phil = 3:20), this=20 does not mean for one moment that they live only for the future: = present=20 society is recognized by Christians as an exile; they belong to a = new=20 society which is the goal of their common pilgrimage and which is=20 anticipated in the course of that pilgrimage.

5. We must add a further point of view. The First Letter to = the=20 Corinthians (1:18-31) tells us that many of the early = Christians=20 belonged to the lower social strata, and precisely for this reason = were=20 open to the experience of new hope, as we saw in the example of = Bakhita.=20 Yet from the beginning there were also conversions in the = aristocratic and=20 cultured circles, since they too were living =93without hope and = without God=20 in the world=94. Myth had lost its credibility; the Roman State = religion had=20 become fossilized into simple ceremony which was scrupulously = carried out,=20 but by then it was merely =93political religion=94. Philosophical = rationalism=20 had confined the gods within the realm of unreality. The Divine = was seen=20 in various ways in cosmic forces, but a God to whom one could pray = did not=20 exist. Paul illustrates the essential problem of the religion of = that time=20 quite accurately when he contrasts life =93according to Christ=94 = with life=20 under the dominion of the =93elemental spirits of the universe=94 = (Col=20 2:8). In this regard a text by Saint Gregory Nazianzen is=20 enlightening. He says that at the very moment when the Magi, = guided by the=20 star, adored Christ the new king, astrology came to an end, = because the=20 stars were now moving in the orbit determined by Christ[2]. This scene, in fact, overturns the = world-view of=20 that time, which in a different way has become fashionable once = again=20 today. It is not the elemental spirits of the universe, the laws = of=20 matter, which ultimately govern the world and mankind, but a = personal God=20 governs the stars, that is, the universe; it is not the laws of = matter and=20 of evolution that have the final say, but reason, will, love=97a = Person. And=20 if we know this Person and he knows us, then truly the inexorable = power of=20 material elements no longer has the last word; we are not slaves = of the=20 universe and of its laws, we are free. In ancient times, honest = enquiring=20 minds were aware of this. Heaven is not empty. Life is not a = simple=20 product of laws and the randomness of matter, but within = everything and at=20 the same time above everything, there is a personal will, there is = a=20 Spirit who in Jesus has revealed himself as Love[3].

6. The sarcophagi of the early Christian era illustrate this = concept=20 visually=97in the context of death, in the face of which the = question=20 concerning life's meaning becomes unavoidable. The figure of = Christ is=20 interpreted on ancient sarcophagi principally by two images: the=20 philosopher and the shepherd. Philosophy at that time was not = generally=20 seen as a difficult academic discipline, as it is today. Rather, = the=20 philosopher was someone who knew how to teach the essential art: = the art=20 of being authentically human=97the art of living and dying. To be = sure, it=20 had long since been realized that many of the people who went = around=20 pretending to be philosophers, teachers of life, were just = charlatans who=20 made money through their words, while having nothing to say about = real=20 life. All the more, then, the true philosopher who really did know = how to=20 point out the path of life was highly sought after. Towards the = end of the=20 third century, on the sarcophagus of a child in Rome, we find for = the=20 first time, in the context of the resurrection of Lazarus, the = figure of=20 Christ as the true philosopher, holding the Gospel in one hand and = the=20 philosopher's travelling staff in the other. With his staff, he = conquers=20 death; the Gospel brings the truth that itinerant philosophers had = searched for in vain. In this image, which then became a common = feature of=20 sarcophagus art for a long time, we see clearly what both educated = and=20 simple people found in Christ: he tells us who man truly is and = what a man=20 must do in order to be truly human. He shows us the way, and this = way is=20 the truth. He himself is both the way and the truth, and therefore = he is=20 also the life which all of us are seeking. He also shows us the = way beyond=20 death; only someone able to do this is a true teacher of life. The = same=20 thing becomes visible in the image of the shepherd. As in the=20 representation of the philosopher, so too through the figure of = the=20 shepherd the early Church could identify with existing models of = Roman=20 art. There the shepherd was generally an expression of the dream = of a=20 tranquil and simple life, for which the people, amid the confusion = of the=20 big cities, felt a certain longing. Now the image was read as part = of a=20 new scenario which gave it a deeper content: =93The Lord is my = shepherd: I=20 shall not want ... Even though I walk through the valley of the = shadow of=20 death, I fear no evil, because you are with me ...=94 (Ps = 23 [22]:1,=20 4). The true shepherd is one who knows even the path that passes = through=20 the valley of death; one who walks with me even on the path of = final=20 solitude, where no one can accompany me, guiding me through: he = himself=20 has walked this path, he has descended into the kingdom of death, = he has=20 conquered death, and he has returned to accompany us now and to = give us=20 the certainty that, together with him, we can find a way through. = The=20 realization that there is One who even in death accompanies me, = and with=20 his =93rod and his staff comforts me=94, so that =93I fear no = evil=94 (cf.=20 Ps 23 [22]:4)=97this was the new =93hope=94 that arose over = the life of=20 believers.

7. We must return once more to the New Testament. In the = eleventh=20 chapter of the Letter to the Hebrews (v. 1) we find a kind = of=20 definition of faith which closely links this virtue with hope. = Ever since=20 the Reformation there has been a dispute among exegetes over the = central=20 word of this phrase, but today a way towards a common = interpretation seems=20 to be opening up once more. For the time being I shall leave this = central=20 word untranslated. The sentence therefore reads as follows: = =93Faith is=20 the hypostasis of things hoped for; the proof of things not = seen=94.=20 For the Fathers and for the theologians of the Middle Ages, it was = clear=20 that the Greek word hypostasis was to be rendered in Latin = with the=20 term substantia. The Latin translation of the text produced = at the=20 time of the early Church therefore reads: Est autem fides = sperandarum=20 substantia rerum, argumentum non apparentium=97faith is the = =93substance=94=20 of things hoped for; the proof of things not seen. Saint Thomas = Aquinas[4], using the terminology of the philosophical = tradition=20 to which he belonged, explains it as follows: faith is a = habitus,=20 that is, a stable disposition of the spirit, through which eternal = life=20 takes root in us and reason is led to consent to what it does not = see. The=20 concept of =93substance=94 is therefore modified in the sense that = through=20 faith, in a tentative way, or as we might say =93in = embryo=94=97and thus=20 according to the =93substance=94=97there are already present in us = the things=20 that are hoped for: the whole, true life. And precisely because = the thing=20 itself is already present, this presence of what is to come also = creates=20 certainty: this =93thing=94 which must come is not yet visible in = the external=20 world (it does not =93appear=94), but because of the fact that, as = an initial=20 and dynamic reality, we carry it within us, a certain perception = of it has=20 even now come into existence. To Luther, who was not particularly = fond of=20 the Letter to the Hebrews, the concept of =93substance=94, = in the=20 context of his view of faith, meant nothing. For this reason he = understood=20 the term hypostasis/substance not in the objective sense = (of a=20 reality present within us), but in the subjective sense, as an = expression=20 of an interior attitude, and so, naturally, he also had to = understand the=20 term argumentum as a disposition of the subject. In the = twentieth=20 century this interpretation became prevalent=97at least in = Germany=97in=20 Catholic exegesis too, so that the ecumenical translation into = German of=20 the New Testament, approved by the Bishops, reads as follows: = Glaube=20 aber ist: Feststehen in dem, was man erhofft, =DCberzeugtsein von = dem, was=20 man nicht sieht (faith is: standing firm in what one hopes, = being=20 convinced of what one does not see). This in itself is not = incorrect, but=20 it is not the meaning of the text, because the Greek term used=20 (elenchos) does not have the subjective sense of = =93conviction=94 but=20 the objective sense of =93proof=94. Rightly, therefore, recent = Prot- estant=20 exegesis has arrived at a different interpretation: =93Yet there = can be no=20 question but that this classical Protestant understanding is = untenable=94[5]. Faith is not merely a personal reaching = out towards=20 things to come that are still totally absent: it gives us = something. It=20 gives us even now something of the reality we are waiting for, and = this=20 present reality constitutes for us a =93proof=94 of the things = that are still=20 unseen. Faith draws the future into the present, so that it is no = longer=20 simply a =93not yet=94. The fact that this future exists changes = the present;=20 the present is touched by the future reality, and thus the things = of the=20 future spill over into those of the present and those of the = present into=20 those of the future.

8. This explanation is further strengthened and related to = daily life=20 if we consider verse 34 of the tenth chapter of the Letter to = the=20 Hebrews, which is linked by vocabulary and content to this = definition=20 of hope-filled faith and prepares the way for it. Here the author = speaks=20 to believers who have undergone the experience of persecution and = he says=20 to them: =93you had compassion on the prisoners, and you joyfully = accepted=20 the plundering of your property (hyparchonton=97Vg. = bonorum),=20 since you knew that you yourselves had a better possession=20 (hyparxin=97Vg. substantiam) and an abiding = one.=94=20 Hyparchonta refers to property, to what in earthly life = constitutes=20 the means of support, indeed the basis, the =93substance=94 for = life, what we=20 depend upon. This =93substance=94, life's normal source of = security, has been=20 taken away from Christians in the course of persecution. They have = stood=20 firm, though, because they considered this material substance to = be of=20 little account. They could abandon it because they had found a = better=20 =93basis=94 for their existence=97a basis that abides, that no one = can take=20 away. We must not overlook the link between these two types of=20 =93substance=94, between means of support or material basis and = the word of=20 faith as the =93basis=94, the =93substance=94 that endures. Faith = gives life a new=20 basis, a new foundation on which we can stand, one which = relativizes the=20 habitual foundation, the reliability of material income. A new = freedom is=20 created with regard to this habitual foundation of life, which = only=20 appears to be capable of providing support, although this = is=20 obviously not to deny its normal meaning. This new freedom, the = awareness=20 of the new =93substance=94 which we have been given, is revealed = not only in=20 martyrdom, in which people resist the overbearing power of = ideology and=20 its political organs and, by their death, renew the world. Above = all, it=20 is seen in the great acts of renunciation, from the monks of = ancient times=20 to Saint Francis of Assisi and those of our contemporaries who = enter=20 modern religious Institutes and movements and leave everything for = love of=20 Christ, so as to bring to men and women the faith and love of = Christ, and=20 to help those who are suffering in body and spirit. In their case, = the new=20 =93substance=94 has proved to be a genuine =93substance=94; from = the hope of these=20 people who have been touched by Christ, hope has arisen for others = who=20 were living in darkness and without hope. In their case, it has = been=20 demonstrated that this new life truly possesses and is = =93substance=94 that=20 calls forth life for others. For us who contemplate these figures, = their=20 way of acting and living is de facto a =93proof=94 that the = things to=20 come, the promise of Christ, are not only a reality that we await, = but a=20 real presence: he is truly the =93philosopher=94 and the = =93shepherd=94 who shows=20 us what life is and where it is to be found.

9. In order to understand more deeply this reflection on the = two types=20 of substance=97hypostasis and hyparchonta=97and on = the two=20 approaches to life expressed by these terms, we must continue with = a brief=20 consideration of two words pertinent to the discussion which can = be found=20 in the tenth chapter of the Letter to the Hebrews. I refer = to the=20 words hypomone (10:36) and hypostole (10:39). = Hypo- mone=20 is normally translated as =93patience=94=97perseverance, = constancy. Knowing=20 how to wait, while patiently enduring trials, is necessary for the = believer to be able to =93receive what is promised=94 (10:36). In = the=20 religious context of ancient Judaism, this word was used expressly = for the=20 expectation of God which was characteristic of Israel, for their=20 persevering faithfulness to God on the basis of the certainty of = the=20 Covenant in a world which contradicts God. Thus the word indicates = a lived=20 hope, a life based on the certainty of hope. In the New Testament = this=20 expectation of God, this standing with God, takes on a new = significance:=20 in Christ, God has revealed himself. He has already communicated = to us the=20 =93substance=94 of things to come, and thus the expectation of God = acquires a=20 new certainty.

It is the expectation of things to come from the perspective of = a=20 present that is already given. It is a looking-forward in Christ's = presence, with Christ who is present, to the perfecting of his = Body, to=20 his definitive coming. The word hypostole, on the other = hand, means=20 shrinking back through lack of courage to speak openly and frankly = a truth=20 that may be dangerous. Hiding through a spirit of fear leads to=20 =93destruction=94 (Heb 10:39). =93God did not give us a = spirit of=20 timidity but a spirit of power and love and = self-control=94=97that, by=20 contrast, is the beautiful way in which the Second Letter to = Timothy=20 (1:7) describes the fundamental attitude of the Christian. =

Eternal life =96 what is it?

10. We have spoken thus far of faith and hope in the New = Testament and=20 in early Christianity; yet it has always been clear that we are = referring=20 not only to the past: the entire reflection concerns living and = dying in=20 general, and therefore it also concerns us here and now. So now we = must=20 ask explicitly: is the Christian faith also for us today a = life-changing=20 and life-sustaining hope?

Is it =93performative=94 for us=97is it a message which shapes = our life in a=20 new way, or is it just =93information=94 which, in the meantime, = we have set=20 aside and which now seems to us to have been superseded by more = recent=20 information? In the search for an answer, I would like to begin = with the=20 classical form of the dialogue with which the rite of Baptism = expressed=20 the reception of an infant into the community of believers and the = infant's rebirth in Christ. First of all the priest asked what = name the=20 parents had chosen for the child, and then he continued with the = question:=20 =93What do you ask of the Church?=94 Answer: =93Faith=94. =93And = what does faith=20 give you?=94 =93Eternal life=94. According to this dialogue, the = parents were=20 seeking access to the faith for their child, communion with = believers,=20 because they saw in faith the key to =93eternal life=94. Today as = in the past,=20 this is what being baptized, becoming Christians, is all about: it = is not=20 just an act of socialization within the community, not simply a = welcome=20 into the Church. The parents expect more for the one to be = baptized: they=20 expect that faith, which includes the corporeal nature of the = Church and=20 her sacraments, will give life to their child=97eternal life. = Faith is the=20 substance of hope. But then the question arises: do we really want = this=97to=20 live eternally? Perhaps many people reject the faith today simply = because=20 they do not find the prospect of eternal life attractive. What = they desire=20 is not eternal life at all, but this present life, for which faith = in=20 eternal life seems something of an impediment. To continue living = for ever=20 =97endlessly=97appears more like a curse than a gift. Death, = admittedly, one=20 would wish to postpone for as long as possible. But to live = always,=20 without end=97this, all things considered, can only be monotonous = and=20 ultimately unbearable. This is precisely the point made, for = example, by=20 Saint Ambrose, one of the Church Fathers, in the funeral discourse = for his=20 deceased brother Satyrus: =93Death was not part of nature; it = became part of=20 nature. God did not decree death from the beginning; he prescribed = it as a=20 remedy. Human life, because of sin ... began to experience the = burden of=20 wretchedness in unremitting labour and unbearable sorrow. There = had to be=20 a limit to its evils; death had to restore what life had = forfeited.=20 Without the assistance of grace, immortality is more of a burden = than a=20 blessing=94[6]. A little earlier, Ambrose had said: = =93Death is, then,=20 no cause for mourning, for it is the cause of mankind's = salvation=94[7].

11. Whatever precisely Saint Ambrose may have meant by these = words, it=20 is true that to eliminate death or to postpone it more or less=20 indefinitely would place the earth and humanity in an impossible=20 situation, and even for the individual would bring no benefit. = Obviously=20 there is a contradiction in our attitude, which points to an inner = contradiction in our very existence. On the one hand, we do not = want to=20 die; above all, those who love us do not want us to die. Yet on = the other=20 hand, neither do we want to continue living indefinitely, nor was = the=20 earth created with that in view. So what do we really want? Our=20 paradoxical attitude gives rise to a deeper question: what in fact = is=20 =93life=94? And what does =93eternity=94 really mean? There are = moments when it=20 suddenly seems clear to us: yes, this is what true =93life=94 = is=97this is what=20 it should be like. Besides, what we call =93life=94 in our = everyday language=20 is not real =93life=94 at all. Saint Augustine, in the extended = letter on=20 prayer which he addressed to Proba, a wealthy Roman widow and = mother of=20 three consuls, once wrote this: ultimately we want only one = thing=97=94the=20 blessed life=94, the life which is simply life, simply = =93happiness=94. In the=20 final analysis, there is nothing else that we ask for in prayer. = Our=20 journey has no other goal=97it is about this alone. But then = Augustine also=20 says: looking more closely, we have no idea what we ultimately = desire,=20 what we would really like. We do not know this reality at all; = even in=20 those moments when we think we can reach out and touch it, it = eludes us.=20 =93We do not know what we should pray for as we ought,=94 he says, = quoting=20 Saint Paul (Rom 8:26). All we know is that it is not this. = Yet in=20 not knowing, we know that this reality must exist. =93There is = therefore in=20 us a certain learned ignorance (docta ignorantia), so to = speak=94, he=20 writes. We do not know what we would really like; we do not know = this=20 =93true life=94; and yet we know that there must be something we = do not know=20 towards which we feel driven[8].

12. I think that in this very precise and permanently valid = way,=20 Augustine is describing man's essential situation, the situation = that=20 gives rise to all his contradictions and hopes. In some way we = want life=20 itself, true life, untouched even by death; yet at the same time = we do not=20 know the thing towards which we feel driven. We cannot stop = reaching out=20 for it, and yet we know that all we can experience or accomplish = is not=20 what we yearn for. This unknown =93thing=94 is the true =93hope=94 = which drives=20 us, and at the same time the fact that it is unknown is the cause = of all=20 forms of despair and also of all efforts, whether positive or = destructive,=20 directed towards worldly authenticity and human authenticity. The = term=20 =93eternal life=94 is intended to give a name to this known = =93unknown=94.=20 Inevitably it is an inadequate term that creates confusion. = =93Eternal=94, in=20 fact, suggests to us the idea of something interminable, and this=20 frightens us; =93life=94 makes us think of the life that we know = and love and=20 do not want to lose, even though very often it brings more toil = than=20 satisfaction, so that while on the one hand we desire it, on the = other=20 hand we do not want it. To imagine ourselves outside the = temporality that=20 imprisons us and in some way to sense that eternity is not an = unending=20 succession of days in the calendar, but something more like the = supreme=20 moment of satisfaction, in which totality embraces us and we = embrace=20 totality=97this we can only attempt. It would be like plunging = into the=20 ocean of infinite love, a moment in which time=97the before and = after=97no=20 longer exists. We can only attempt to grasp the idea that such a = moment is=20 life in the full sense, a plunging ever anew into the vastness of = being,=20 in which we are simply overwhelmed with joy. This is how Jesus = expresses=20 it in Saint John's Gospel: =93I will see you again and your hearts = will=20 rejoice, and no one will take your joy from you=94 (16:22). We = must think=20 along these lines if we want to understand the object of Christian = hope,=20 to understand what it is that our faith, our being with Christ, = leads us=20 to expect[9].

Is Christian hope individualistic?

13. In the course of their history, Christians have tried to = express=20 this =93knowing without knowing=94 by means of figures that can be = represented, and they have developed images of =93Heaven=94 which = remain far=20 removed from what, after all, can only be known negatively, via = unknowing.=20 All these attempts at the representation of hope have given to = many=20 people, down the centuries, the incentive to live by faith and = hence also=20 to abandon their hyparchonta, the material substance for = their=20 lives. The author of the Letter to the Hebrews, in the = eleventh=20 chapter, outlined a kind of history of those who live in hope and = of their=20 journeying, a history which stretches from the time of Abel into = the=20 author's own day. This type of hope has been subjected to an = increasingly=20 harsh critique in modern times: it is dismissed as pure = individualism, a=20 way of abandoning the world to its misery and taking refuge in a = private=20 form of eternal salvation. Henri de Lubac, in the introduction to = his=20 seminal book Catholicisme. Aspects sociaux du dogme, = assembled some=20 characteristic articulations of this viewpoint, one of which is = worth=20 quoting: =93Should I have found joy? No ... only my joy, = and that is=20 something wildly different ... The joy of Jesus can be personal. = It can=20 belong to a single man and he is saved. He is at peace ... now and = always,=20 but he is alone. The isolation of this joy does not trouble him. = On the=20 contrary: he is the chosen one! In his blessedness he passes = through the=20 battlefields with a rose in his hand=94[10].

14. Against this, drawing upon the vast range of patristic = theology, de=20 Lubac was able to demonstrate that salvation has always been = considered a=20 =93social=94 reality. Indeed, the Letter to the Hebrews = speaks of a=20 =93city=94 (cf. 11:10, 16; 12:22; 13:14) and therefore of communal = salvation.=20 Consistently with this view, sin is understood by the Fathers as = the=20 destruction of the unity of the human race, as fragmentation and = division.=20 Babel, the place where languages were confused, the place of = separation,=20 is seen to be an expression of what sin fundamentally is. Hence=20 =93redemption=94 appears as the reestablishment of unity, in which = we come=20 together once more in a union that begins to take shape in the = world=20 community of believers. We need not concern ourselves here with = all the=20 texts in which the social character of hope appears. Let us = concentrate on=20 the Letter to Proba in which Augustine tries to illustrate = to some=20 degree this =93known unknown=94 that we seek. His point of = departure is simply=20 the expression =93blessed life=94. Then he quotes Psalm 144 = [143]:15:=20 =93Blessed is the people whose God is the Lord.=94 And he = continues: =93In order=20 to be numbered among this people and attain to ... everlasting = life with=20 God, =91the end of the commandment is charity that issues from a = pure heart=20 and a good conscience and sincere faith' (1 Tim 1:5)=94[11]. This real life, towards which we try to = reach out=20 again and again, is linked to a lived union with a =93people=94, = and for each=20 individual it can only be attained within this =93we=94. It = presupposes that=20 we escape from the prison of our =93I=94, because only in the = openness of this=20 universal subject does our gaze open out to the source of joy, to = love=20 itself=97to God.

15. While this community-oriented vision of the =93blessed = life=94 is=20 certainly directed beyond the present world, as such it also has = to do=20 with the building up of this world=97in very different ways, = according to=20 the historical context and the possibilities offered or excluded = thereby.=20 At the time of Augustine, the incursions of new peoples were = threatening=20 the cohesion of the world, where hitherto there had been a certain = guarantee of law and of living in a juridically ordered society; = at that=20 time, then, it was a matter of strengthening the basic foundations = of this=20 peaceful societal existence, in order to survive in a changed = world. Let=20 us now consider a more or less randomly chosen episode from the = Middle=20 Ages, that serves in many respects to illustrate what we have been = saying.=20 It was commonly thought that monasteries were places of flight = from the=20 world (contemptus mundi) and of withdrawal from = responsibility for=20 the world, in search of private salvation. Bernard of Clairvaux, = who=20 inspired a multitude of young people to enter the monasteries of = his=20 reformed Order, had quite a different perspective on this. In his = view,=20 monks perform a task for the whole Church and hence also for the = world. He=20 uses many images to illustrate the responsibility that monks have = towards=20 the entire body of the Church, and indeed towards humanity; he = applies to=20 them the words of pseudo-Rufinus: =93The human race lives thanks = to a few;=20 were it not for them, the world would perish ...=94[12]. = Contemplatives=97contemplantes=97must become=20 agricultural labourers=97laborantes=97he says. The nobility = of work,=20 which Christianity inherited from Judaism, had already been = expressed in=20 the monastic rules of Augustine and Benedict. Bernard takes up = this idea=20 again. The young noblemen who flocked to his monasteries had to = engage in=20 manual labour. In fact Bernard explicitly states that not even the = monastery can restore Paradise, but he maintains that, as a place = of=20 practical and spiritual =93tilling the soil=94, it must prepare = the new=20 Paradise. A wild plot of forest land is rendered fertile=97and in = the=20 process, the trees of pride are felled, whatever weeds may be = growing=20 inside souls are pulled up, and the ground is thereby prepared so = that=20 bread for body and soul can flourish[13]. Are we not perhaps seeing once again, in = the light=20 of current history, that no positive world order can prosper where = souls=20 are overgrown?

The transformation of Christian faith-hope in the modern=20 age

16. How could the idea have developed that Jesus's message is = narrowly=20 individualistic and aimed only at each person singly? How did we = arrive at=20 this interpretation of the =93salvation of the soul=94 as a flight = from=20 responsibility for the whole, and how did we come to conceive the=20 Christian project as a selfish search for salvation which rejects = the idea=20 of serving others? In order to find an answer to this we must take = a look=20 at the foundations of the modern age. These appear with particular = clarity=20 in the thought of Francis Bacon. That a new era emerged=97through = the=20 discovery of America and the new technical achievements that had = made this=20 development possible=97is undeniable. But what is the basis of = this new era?=20 It is the new correlation of experiment and method that enables = man to=20 arrive at an interpretation of nature in conformity with its laws = and thus=20 finally to achieve =93the triumph of art over nature=94 = (victoria cursus=20 artis super naturam)[14]. The novelty=97according to Bacon's = vision=97lies in a=20 new correlation between science and praxis. This is also given a=20 theological application: the new correlation between science and = praxis=20 would mean that the dominion over creation =97given to man by God = and lost=20 through original sin=97would be reestablished[15].

17. Anyone who reads and reflects on these statements = attentively will=20 recognize that a disturbing step has been taken: up to that time, = the=20 recovery of what man had lost through the expulsion from Paradise = was=20 expected from faith in Jesus Christ: herein lay =93redemption=94. = Now, this=20 =93redemption=94, the restoration of the lost =93Paradise=94 is no = longer expected=20 from faith, but from the newly discovered link between science and = praxis.=20 It is not that faith is simply denied; rather it is displaced onto = another=20 level=97that of purely private and other-worldly affairs=97and at = the same=20 time it becomes somehow irrelevant for the world. This = programmatic vision=20 has determined the trajectory of modern times and it also shapes = the=20 present-day crisis of faith which is essentially a crisis of = Christian=20 hope. Thus hope too, in Bacon, acquires a new form. Now it is = called:=20 faith in progress. For Bacon, it is clear that the recent = spate of=20 discoveries and inventions is just the beginning; through the = interplay of=20 science and praxis, totally new discoveries will follow, a totally = new=20 world will emerge, the kingdom of man[16]. He even put forward a vision of = foreseeable=20 inventions=97including the aeroplane and the submarine. As the = ideology of=20 progress developed further, joy at visible advances in human = potential=20 remained a continuing confirmation of faith in progress as = such.=20

18. At the same time, two categories become increasingly = central to the=20 idea of progress: reason and freedom. Progress is primarily = associated=20 with the growing dominion of reason, and this reason is obviously=20 considered to be a force of  good and a force for good. = Progress is=20 the overcoming of all forms of dependency=97it is progress towards = perfect=20 freedom. Likewise freedom is seen purely as a promise, in which = man=20 becomes more and more fully himself. In both concepts=97freedom = and=20 reason=97there is a political aspect. The kingdom of reason, in = fact, is=20 expected as the new condition of the human race once it has = attained total=20 freedom. The political conditions of such a kingdom of reason and = freedom,=20 however, appear at first sight somewhat ill defined. Reason and = freedom=20 seem to guarantee by themselves, by virtue of their intrinsic = goodness, a=20 new and perfect human community. The two key concepts of = =93reason=94 and=20 =93freedom=94, however, were tacitly interpreted as being in = conflict with the=20 shackles of faith and of the Church as well as those of the = political=20 structures of the period. Both concepts therefore contain a = revolutionary=20 potential of enormous explosive force.

19. We must look briefly at the two essential stages in the = political=20 realization of this hope, because they are of great importance for = the=20 development of Christian hope, for a proper understanding of it = and of the=20 reasons for its persistence. First there is the French = Revolution=97an=20 attempt to establish the rule of reason and freedom as a political = reality. To begin with, the Europe of the Enlightenment looked on = with=20 fascination at these events, but then, as they developed, had = cause to=20 reflect anew on reason and freedom. A good illustration of these = two=20 phases in the reception of events in France is found in two essays = by=20 Immanuel Kant in which he reflects on what had taken place. In = 1792 he=20 wrote Der Sieg des guten Prinzips =FCber das b=F6se und die = Gr=FCndung eines=20 Reiches Gottes auf Erden (=93The Victory of the Good over the = Evil=20 Principle and the Founding of a Kingdom of God on Earth=94). In = this text he=20 says the following: =93The gradual transition of ecclesiastical = faith to the=20 exclusive sovereignty of pure religious faith is the coming of the = Kingdom=20 of God=94[17]. He also tells us that revolutions can = accelerate=20 this transition from ecclesiastical faith to rational faith. The = =93Kingdom=20 of God=94 proclaimed by Jesus receives a new definition here and = takes on a=20 new mode of presence; a new =93imminent expectation=94, so to = speak, comes=20 into existence: the =93Kingdom of God=94 arrives where = =93ecclesiastical faith=94=20 is vanquished and superseded by =93religious faith=94, that is to = say, by=20 simple rational faith. In 1794, in the text Das Ende aller = Dinge=20 (=93The End of All Things=94) a changed image appears. Now Kant = considers the=20 possibility that as well as the natural end of all things there = may be=20 another that is unnatural, a perverse end. He writes in this = connection:=20 =93If Christianity should one day cease to be worthy of love ... = then the=20 prevailing mode in human thought would be rejection and opposition = to it;=20 and the Antichrist ... would begin his=97albeit short=97regime = (presumably=20 based on fear and self-interest); but then, because Christianity, = though=20 destined to be the world religion, would not in fact be favoured = by=20 destiny to become so, then, in a moral respect, this could lead to = the=20 (perverted) end of all things=94[18].

20. The nineteenth century held fast to its faith in progress = as the=20 new form of human hope, and it continued to consider reason and = freedom as=20 the guiding stars to be followed along the path of hope. = Nevertheless, the=20 increasingly rapid advance of technical development and the=20 industrialization connected with it soon gave rise to an entirely = new=20 social situation: there emerged a class of industrial workers and = the=20 so-called =93industrial proletariat=94, whose dreadful living = conditions=20 Friedrich Engels described alarmingly in 1845. For his readers, = the=20 conclusion is clear: this cannot continue; a change is necessary. = Yet the=20 change would shake up and overturn the entire structure of = bourgeois=20 society. After the bourgeois revolution of 1789, the time had come = for a=20 new, proletarian revolution: progress could not simply continue in = small,=20 linear steps. A revolutionary leap was needed. Karl Marx took up = the=20 rallying call, and applied his incisive language and intellect to = the task=20 of launching this major new and, as he thought, definitive step in = history=20 towards salvation=97towards what Kant had described as the = =93Kingdom of God=94.=20 Once the truth of the hereafter had been rejected, it would then = be a=20 question of establishing the truth of the here and now. The = critique of=20 Heaven is transformed into the critique of earth, the critique of = theology=20 into the critique of politics. Progress towards the better, = towards the=20 definitively good world, no longer comes simply from science but = from=20 politics=97from a scientifically conceived politics that = recognizes the=20 structure of history and society and thus points out the road = towards=20 revolution, towards all-encompassing change. With great precision, = albeit=20 with a certain onesided bias, Marx described the situation of his = time,=20 and with great analytical skill he spelled out the paths leading = to=20 revolution=97and not only theoretically: by means of the Communist = Party=20 that came into being from the Communist Manifesto of 1848, he set = it in=20 motion. His promise, owing to the acuteness of his analysis and = his clear=20 indication of the means for radical change, was and still remains = an=20 endless source of fascination. Real revolution followed, in the = most=20 radical way in Russia.

21. Together with the victory of the revolution, though, Marx's = fundamental error also became evident. He showed precisely how to=20 overthrow the existing order, but he did not say how matters = should=20 proceed thereafter. He simply presumed that with the expropriation = of the=20 ruling class, with the fall of political power and the = socialization of=20 means of production, the new Jerusalem would be realized. Then, = indeed,=20 all contradictions would be resolved, man and the world would = finally sort=20 themselves out. Then everything would be able to proceed by itself = along=20 the right path, because everything would belong to everyone and = all would=20 desire the best for one another. Thus, having accomplished the = revolution,=20 Lenin must have realized that the writings of the master gave no=20 indication as to how to proceed. True, Marx had spoken of the = interim=20 phase of the dictatorship of the proletariat as a necessity which = in time=20 would automatically become redundant. This =93intermediate = phase=94 we know=20 all too well, and we also know how it then developed, not ushering = in a=20 perfect world, but leaving behind a trail of appalling = destruction. Marx=20 not only omitted to work out how this new world would be = organized=97which=20 should, of course, have been unnecessary. His silence on this = matter=20 follows logically from his chosen approach. His error lay deeper. = He=20 forgot that man always remains man. He forgot man and he forgot = man's=20 freedom. He forgot that freedom always remains also freedom for = evil. He=20 thought that once the economy had been put right, everything would = automatically be put right. His real error is materialism: man, in = fact,=20 is not merely the product of economic conditions, and it is not = possible=20 to redeem him purely from the outside by creating a favourable = economic=20 environment.

22. Again, we find ourselves facing the question: what may we = hope? A=20 self-critique of modernity is needed in dialogue with Christianity = and its=20 concept of hope. In this dialogue Christians too, in the context = of their=20 knowledge and experience, must learn anew in what their hope truly = consists, what they have to offer to the world and what they = cannot offer.=20 Flowing into this self-critique of the modern age there also has = to be a=20 self-critique of modern Christianity, which must constantly renew = its=20 self-understanding setting out from its roots. On this subject, = all we can=20 attempt here are a few brief observations. First we must ask = ourselves:=20 what does =93progress=94 really mean; what does it promise and = what does it=20 not promise? In the nineteenth century, faith in progress was = already=20 subject to critique. In the twentieth century, Theodor W. Adorno=20 formulated the problem of faith in progress quite drastically: he = said=20 that progress, seen accurately, is progress from the sling to the = atom=20 bomb. Now this is certainly an aspect of progress that must not be = concealed. To put it another way: the ambiguity of progress = becomes=20 evident. Without doubt, it offers new possibilities for good, but = it also=20 opens up appalling possibilities for evil=97possibilities that = formerly did=20 not exist. We have all witnessed the way in which progress, in the = wrong=20 hands, can become and has indeed become a terrifying progress in = evil. If=20 technical progress is not matched by corresponding progress in = man's=20 ethical formation, in man's inner growth (cf. Eph 3:16; = 2=20 Cor 4:16), then it is not progress at all, but a threat for = man and=20 for the world.

23. As far as the two great themes of =93reason=94 and = =93freedom=94 are=20 concerned, here we can only touch upon the issues connected with = them. Yes=20 indeed, reason is God's great gift to man, and the victory of = reason over=20 unreason is also a goal of the Christian life. But when does = reason truly=20 triumph? When it is detached from God? When it has become blind to = God? Is=20 the reason behind action and capacity for action the whole of = reason? If=20 progress, in order to be progress, needs moral growth on the part = of=20 humanity, then the reason behind action and capacity for action is = likewise urgently in need of integration through reason's openness = to the=20 saving forces of faith, to the differentiation between good and = evil. Only=20 thus does reason become truly human. It becomes human only if it = is=20 capable of directing the will along the right path, and it is = capable of=20 this only if it looks beyond itself. Otherwise, man's situation, = in view=20 of the imbalance between his material capacity and the lack of = judgement=20 in his heart, becomes a threat for him and for creation. Thus = where=20 freedom is concerned, we must remember that human freedom always = requires=20 a convergence of various freedoms. Yet this convergence cannot = succeed=20 unless it is determined by a common intrinsic criterion of = measurement,=20 which is the foundation and goal of our freedom. Let us put it = very=20 simply: man needs God, otherwise he remains without hope. Given = the=20 developments of the modern age, the quotation from Saint Paul with = which I=20 began (Eph 2:12) proves to be thoroughly realistic and = plainly=20 true. There is no doubt, therefore, that a =93Kingdom of God=94 = accomplished=20 without God=97a kingdom therefore of man alone=97inevitably ends = up as the=20 =93perverse end=94 of all things as described by Kant: we have = seen it, and we=20 see it over and over again. Yet neither is there any doubt that = God truly=20 enters into human affairs only when, rather than being present = merely in=20 our thinking, he himself comes towards us and speaks to us. Reason = therefore needs faith if it is to be completely itself: reason and = faith=20 need one another in order to fulfil their true nature and their = mission.=20

The true shape of Christian hope

24. Let us ask once again: what may we hope? And what may we = not hope?=20 First of all, we must acknowledge that incremental progress is = possible=20 only in the material sphere. Here, amid our growing knowledge of = the=20 structure of matter and in the light of ever more advanced = inventions, we=20 clearly see continuous progress towards an ever greater mastery of = nature.=20 Yet in the field of ethical awareness and moral decision-making, = there is=20 no similar possibility of accumulation for the simple reason that = man's=20 freedom is always new and he must always make his decisions anew. = These=20 decisions can never simply be made for us in advance by = others=97if that=20 were the case, we would no longer be free. Freedom presupposes = that in=20 fundamental decisions, every person and every generation is a new=20 beginning. Naturally, new generations can build on the knowledge = and=20 experience of those who went before, and they can draw upon the = moral=20 treasury of the whole of humanity. But they can also reject it, = because it=20 can never be self-evident in the same way as material inventions. = The=20 moral treasury of humanity is not readily at hand like tools that = we use;=20 it is present as an appeal to freedom and a possibility for it. = This,=20 however, means that:

a) The right state of human affairs, the moral = well-being of the=20 world can never be guaranteed simply through structures alone, = however=20 good they are. Such structures are not only important, but = necessary; yet=20 they cannot and must not marginalize human freedom. Even the best=20 structures function only when the community is animated by = convictions=20 capable of motivating people to assent freely to the social order. = Freedom=20 requires conviction; conviction does not exist on its own, but = must always=20 be gained anew by the community.

b) Since man always remains free and since his freedom = is always=20 fragile, the kingdom of good will never be definitively = established in=20 this world. Anyone who promises the better world that is = guaranteed to=20 last for ever is making a false promise; he is overlooking human = freedom.=20 Freedom must constantly be won over for the cause of good. Free = assent to=20 the good never exists simply by itself. If there were structures = which=20 could irrevocably guarantee a determined=97good=97state of the = world, man's=20 freedom would be denied, and hence they would not be good = structures at=20 all.

25. What this means is that every generation has the task of = engaging=20 anew in the arduous search for the right way to order human = affairs; this=20 task is never simply completed. Yet every generation must also = make its=20 own contribution to establishing convincing structures of freedom = and of=20 good, which can help the following generation as a guideline for = the=20 proper use of human freedom; hence, always within human limits, = they=20 provide a certain guarantee also for the future. In other words: = good=20 structures help, but of themselves they are not enough. Man can = never be=20 redeemed simply from outside. Francis Bacon and those who followed = in the=20 intellectual current of modernity that he inspired were wrong to = believe=20 that man would be redeemed through science. Such an expectation = asks too=20 much of science; this kind of hope is deceptive. Science can = contribute=20 greatly to making the world and mankind more human. Yet it can = also=20 destroy mankind and the world unless it is steered by forces that = lie=20 outside it. On the other hand, we must also acknowledge that = modern=20 Christianity, faced with the successes of science in progressively = structuring the world, has to a large extent restricted its = attention to=20 the individual and his salvation. In so doing it has limited the = horizon=20 of its hope and has failed to recognize sufficiently the greatness = of its=20 task=97even if it has continued to achieve great things in the = formation of=20 man and in care for the weak and the suffering.

26. It is not science that redeems man: man is redeemed by = love. This=20 applies even in terms of this present world. When someone has the=20 experience of a great love in his life, this is a moment of = =93redemption=94=20 which gives a new meaning to his life. But soon he will also = realize that=20 the love bestowed upon him cannot by itself resolve the question = of his=20 life. It is a love that remains fragile. It can be destroyed by = death. The=20 human being needs unconditional love. He needs the certainty which = makes=20 him say: =93neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor = principalities, nor=20 things present, nor things to come, nor powers, nor height, nor = depth, nor=20 anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from = the love=20 of God in Christ Jesus our Lord=94 (Rom 8:38- 39). If this = absolute=20 love exists, with its absolute certainty, then=97only then=97is = man=20 =93redeemed=94, whatever should happen to him in his particular = circumstances.=20 This is what it means to say: Jesus Christ has =93redeemed=94 us. = Through him=20 we have become certain of God, a God who is not a remote =93first = cause=94 of=20 the world, because his only-begotten Son has become man and of him = everyone can say: =93I live by faith in the Son of God, who loved = me and=20 gave himself for me=94 (Gal 2:20).

27. In this sense it is true that anyone who does not know God, = even=20 though he may entertain all kinds of hopes, is ultimately without = hope,=20 without the great hope that sustains the whole of life (cf. Eph = 2:12). Man's great, true hope which holds firm in spite of all = disappointments can only be God=97God who has loved us and who = continues to=20 love us =93to the end,=94 until all =93is accomplished=94 (cf. = Jn 13:1 and=20 19:30). Whoever is moved by love begins to perceive what = =93life=94 really is.=20 He begins to perceive the meaning of the word of hope that we = encountered=20 in the Baptismal Rite: from faith I await =93eternal life=94=97the = true life=20 which, whole and unthreatened, in all its fullness, is simply = life. Jesus,=20 who said that he had come so that we might have life and have it = in its=20 fullness, in abundance (cf. Jn 10:10), has also explained = to us=20 what =93life=94 means: =93this is eternal life, that they know you = the only true=20 God, and Jesus Christ whom you have sent=94 (Jn 17:3). Life = in its=20 true sense is not something we have exclusively in or from = ourselves: it=20 is a relationship. And life in its totality is a relationship with = him who=20 is the source of life. If we are in relation with him who does not = die,=20 who is Life itself and Love itself, then we are in life. Then we = =93live=94.=20

28. Yet now the question arises: are we not in this way falling = back=20 once again into an individualistic understanding of salvation, = into hope=20 for myself alone, which is not true hope since it forgets and = overlooks=20 others? Indeed we are not! Our relationship with God is = established=20 through communion with Jesus=97we cannot achieve it alone or from = our own=20 resources alone. The relationship with Jesus, however, is a = relationship=20 with the one who gave himself as a ransom for all (cf. 1 = Tim 2:6).=20 Being in communion with Jesus Christ draws us into his =93being = for all=94; it=20 makes it our own way of being. He commits us to live for others, = but only=20 through communion with him does it become possible truly to be = there for=20 others, for the whole. In this regard I would like to quote the = great=20 Greek Doctor of the Church, Maximus the Confessor (=86 662), who = begins by=20 exhorting us to prefer nothing to the knowledge and love of God, = but then=20 quickly moves on to practicalities: =93The one who loves God = cannot hold on=20 to money but rather gives it out in God's fashion ... in the same = manner=20 in accordance with the measure of justice=94[19]. Love of God leads to participation in = the justice=20 and generosity of God towards others. Loving God requires an = interior=20 freedom from all possessions and all material goods: the love of = God is=20 revealed in responsibility for others[20]. This same connection between love of God = and=20 responsibility for others can be seen in a striking way in the = life of=20 Saint Augustine. After his conversion to the Christian faith, he = decided,=20 together with some like-minded friends, to lead a life totally = dedicated=20 to the word of God and to things eternal. His intention was to = practise a=20 Christian version of the ideal of the contemplative life expressed = in the=20 great tradition of Greek philosophy, choosing in this way the=20  =93better part=94 (cf. Lk 10:42). Things turned out = differently,=20 however. While attending the Sunday liturgy at the port city of = Hippo, he=20 was called out from the assembly by the Bishop and constrained to = receive=20 ordination for the exercise of the priestly ministry in that city. = Looking=20 back on that moment, he writes in his Confessions: = =93Terrified by my=20 sins and the weight of my misery, I had resolved in my heart, and=20 meditated flight into the wilderness; but you forbade me and gave = me=20 strength, by saying: =91Christ died for all, that those who live = might live=20 no longer for themselves but for him who for their sake died' = (cf. 2=20 Cor 5:15)=94[21]. Christ died for all. To live for him = means=20 allowing oneself to be drawn into his being for others. =

29. For Augustine this meant a totally new life. He once = described his=20 daily life in the following terms: =93The turbulent have to be = corrected,=20 the faint-hearted cheered up, the weak supported; the Gospel's = opponents=20 need to be refuted, its insidious enemies guarded against; the = unlearned=20 need to be taught, the indolent stirred up, the argumentative = checked; the=20 proud must be put in their place, the desperate set on their feet, = those=20 engaged in quarrels reconciled; the needy have to be helped, the = oppressed=20 to be liberated, the good to be encouraged, the bad to be = tolerated; all=20 must be loved=94[22]. =93The Gospel terrifies me=94[23]=97producing that healthy fear which = prevents us from=20 living for ourselves alone and compels us to pass on the hope we = hold in=20 common. Amid the serious difficulties facing the Roman = Empire=97and also=20 posing a serious threat to Roman Africa, which was actually = destroyed at=20 the end of Augustine's life=97this was what he set out to do: to = transmit=20 hope, the hope which came to him from faith and which, in complete = contrast with his introverted temperament, enabled him to take = part=20 decisively and with all his strength in the task of building up = the city.=20 In the same chapter of the Confessions in which we have = just noted=20 the decisive reason for his commitment =93for all=94, he says that = Christ=20 =93intercedes for us, otherwise I should despair. My weaknesses = are many and=20 grave, many and grave indeed, but more abundant still is your = medicine. We=20 might have thought that your word was far distant from union with = man, and=20 so we might have despaired of ourselves, if this Word had not = become flesh=20 and dwelt among us=94[24]. On the strength of his hope, Augustine = dedicated=20 himself completely to the ordinary people and to his = city=97renouncing his=20 spiritual nobility, he preached and acted in a simple way for = simple=20 people.

30. Let us summarize what has emerged so far in the course of = our=20 reflections. Day by day, man experiences many greater or lesser = hopes,=20 different in kind according to the different periods of his life.=20 Sometimes one of these hopes may appear to be totally satisfying = without=20 any need for other hopes. Young people can have the hope of a = great and=20 fully satisfying love; the hope of a certain position in their = profession,=20 or of some success that will prove decisive for the rest of their = lives.=20 When these hopes are fulfilled, however, it becomes clear that = they were=20 not, in reality, the whole. It becomes evident that man has need = of a hope=20 that goes further. It becomes clear that only something infinite = will=20 suffice for him, something that will always be more than he can = ever=20 attain. In this regard our contemporary age has developed the hope = of=20 creating a perfect world that, thanks to scientific knowledge and = to=20 scientifically based politics, seemed to be achievable. Thus = Biblical hope=20 in the Kingdom of God has been displaced by hope in the kingdom of = man,=20 the hope of a better world which would be the real =93Kingdom of = God=94. This=20 seemed at last to be the great and realistic hope that man needs. = It was=20 capable of galvanizing=97for a time=97all man's energies. The = great objective=20 seemed worthy of full commitment. In the course of time, however, = it has=20 become clear that this hope is constantly receding. Above all it = has=20 become apparent that this may be a hope for a future generation, = but not=20 for me.

And however much =93for all=94 may be part of the great = hope=97since I cannot=20 be happy without others or in opposition to them=97it remains true = that a=20 hope that does not concern me personally is not a real hope. It = has also=20 become clear that this hope is opposed to freedom, since human = affairs=20 depend in each generation on the free decisions of those = concerned. If=20 this freedom were to be taken away, as a result of certain = conditions or=20 structures, then ultimately this world would not be good, since a = world=20 without freedom can by no means be a good world. Hence, while we = must=20 always be committed to the improvement of the world, tomorrow's = better=20 world cannot be the proper and sufficient content of our hope. And = in this=20 regard the question always arises: when is the world =93better=94? = What makes=20 it good? By what standard are we to judge its goodness? What are = the paths=20 that lead to this =93goodness=94?

31. Let us say once again: we need the greater and lesser hopes = that=20 keep us going day by day. But these are not enough without the = great hope,=20 which must surpass everything else. This great hope can only be = God, who=20 encompasses the whole of reality and who can bestow upon us what = we, by=20 ourselves, cannot attain. The fact that it comes to us as a gift = is=20 actually part of hope. God is the foundation of hope: not any god, = but the=20 God who has a human face and who has loved us to the end, each one = of us=20 and humanity in its entirety. His Kingdom is not an imaginary = hereafter,=20 situated in a future that will never arrive; his Kingdom is = present=20 wherever he is loved and wherever his love reaches us. His love = alone=20 gives us the possibility of soberly persevering day by day, = without=20 ceasing to be spurred on by hope, in a world which by its very = nature is=20 imperfect. His love is at the same time our guarantee of the = existence of=20 what we only vaguely sense and which nevertheless, in our deepest = self, we=20 await: a life that is =93truly=94 life. Let us now, in the final = section,=20 develop this idea in more detail as we focus our attention on some = of the=20 =93settings=94 in which we can learn in practice about hope and = its exercise.=20

=93Settings=94 for learning and practising=20 hope

I. Prayer as a school of hope

32. A first essential setting for learning hope is prayer. When = no one=20 listens to me any more, God still listens to me. When I can no = longer talk=20 to anyone or call upon anyone, I can always talk to God. When = there is no=20 longer anyone to help me deal with a need or expectation that goes = beyond=20 the human capacity for hope, he can help me[25]. When I have been plunged into complete = solitude=20 ...; if I pray I am never totally alone. The late Cardinal Nguyen = Van=20 Thuan, a prisoner for thirteen years, nine of them spent in = solitary=20 confinement, has left us a precious little book: Prayers of = Hope.=20 During thirteen years in jail, in a situation of seemingly utter=20 hopelessness, the fact that he could listen and speak to God = became for=20 him an increasing power of hope, which enabled him, after his = release, to=20 become for people all over the world a witness to hope=97to that = great hope=20 which does not wane even in the nights of solitude.

33. Saint Augustine, in a homily on the First Letter of = John,=20 describes very beautifully the intimate relationship between = prayer and=20 hope. He defines prayer as an exercise of desire. Man was created = for=20 greatness=97for God himself; he was created to be filled by God. = But his=20 heart is too small for the greatness to which it is destined. It = must be=20 stretched. =93By delaying [his gift], God strengthens our desire; = through=20 desire he enlarges our soul and by expanding it he increases its = capacity=20 [for receiving him]=94. Augustine refers to Saint Paul, who speaks = of=20 himself as straining forward to the things that are to come (cf.=20 Phil 3:13). He then uses a very beautiful image to describe = this=20 process of enlargement and preparation of the human heart. = =93Suppose that=20 God wishes to fill you with honey [a symbol of God's tenderness = and=20 goodness]; but if you are full of vinegar, where will you put the = honey?=94=20 The vessel, that is your heart, must first be enlarged and then = cleansed,=20 freed from the vinegar and its taste. This requires hard work and = is=20 painful, but in this way alone do we become suited to that for = which we=20 are destined[26]. Even if Augustine speaks directly only = of our=20 capacity for God, it is nevertheless clear that through this = effort by=20 which we are freed from vinegar and the taste of vinegar, not only = are we=20 made free for God, but we also become open to others. It is only = by=20 becoming children of God, that we can be with our common Father. = To pray=20 is not to step outside history and withdraw to our own private = corner of=20 happiness. When we pray properly we undergo a process of inner=20 purification which opens us up to God and thus to our fellow human = beings=20 as well. In prayer we must learn what we can truly ask of = God=97what is=20 worthy of God. We must learn that we cannot pray against others. = We must=20 learn that we cannot ask for the superficial and comfortable = things that=20 we desire at this moment=97that meagre, misplaced hope that leads = us away=20 from God. We must learn to purify our desires and our hopes. We = must free=20 ourselves from the hidden lies with which we deceive ourselves. = God sees=20 through them, and when we come before God, we too are forced to = recognize=20 them. =93But who can discern his errors? Clear me from hidden = faults=94 prays=20 the Psalmist (Ps 19:12 [18:13]). Failure to recognize my = guilt, the=20 illusion of my innocence, does not justify me and does not save = me,=20 because I am culpable for the numbness of my conscience and my = incapacity=20 to recognize the evil in me for what it is. If God does not exist, = perhaps=20 I have to seek refuge in these lies, because there is no one who = can=20 forgive me; no one who is the true criterion. Yet my encounter = with God=20 awakens my conscience in such a way that it no longer aims at=20 self-justification, and is no longer a mere reflection of me and = those of=20 my contemporaries who shape my thinking, but it becomes a capacity = for=20 listening to the Good itself.

34. For prayer to develop this power of purification, it must = on the=20 one hand be something very personal, an encounter between my = intimate self=20 and God, the living God. On the other hand it must be constantly = guided=20 and enlightened by the great prayers of the Church and of the = saints, by=20 liturgical prayer, in which the Lord teaches us again and again = how to=20 pray properly. Cardinal Nguyen Van Thuan, in his book of spiritual = exercises, tells us that during his life there were long periods = when he=20 was unable to pray and that he would hold fast to the texts of the = Church's prayer: the Our Father, the Hail Mary and the prayers of = the=20 liturgy[27]. Praying must always involve this = intermingling of=20 public and personal prayer. This is how we can speak to God and = how God=20 speaks to us. In this way we undergo those purifications by which = we=20 become open to God and are prepared for the service of our fellow = human=20 beings. We become capable of the great hope, and thus we become = ministers=20 of hope for others. Hope in a Christian sense is always hope for = others as=20 well. It is an active hope, in which we struggle to prevent things = moving=20 towards the =93perverse end=94. It is an active hope also in the = sense that we=20 keep the world open to God. Only in this way does it continue to = be a=20 truly human hope.

II. Action and suffering as settings for = learning=20 hope

35. All serious and upright human conduct is hope in action. = This is so=20 first of all in the sense that we thereby strive to realize our = lesser and=20 greater hopes, to complete this or that task which is important = for our=20 onward journey, or we work towards a brighter and more humane = world so as=20 to open doors into the future. Yet our daily efforts in pursuing = our own=20 lives and in working for the world's future either tire us or turn = into=20 fanaticism, unless we are enlightened by the radiance of the great = hope=20 that cannot be destroyed even by small-scale failures or by a = breakdown in=20 matters of historic importance. If we cannot hope for more than is = effectively attainable at any given time, or more than is promised = by=20 political or economic authorities, our lives will soon be without = hope. It=20 is important to know that I can always continue to hope, even if = in my own=20 life, or the historical period in which I am living, there seems = to be=20 nothing left to hope for. Only the great certitude of hope that my = own=20 life and history in general, despite all failures, are held firm = by the=20 indestructible power of Love, and that this gives them their = meaning and=20 importance, only this kind of hope can then give the courage to = act and to=20 persevere. Certainly we cannot =93build=94 the Kingdom of God by = our own=20 efforts=97what we build will always be the kingdom of man with all = the=20 limitations proper to our human nature. The Kingdom of God is a = gift, and=20 precisely because of this, it is great and beautiful, and = constitutes the=20 response to our hope. And we cannot=97to use the classical=20 expression=97=94merit=94 Heaven through our works. Heaven is = always more than we=20 could merit, just as being loved is never something =93merited=94, = but always=20 a gift. However, even when we are fully aware that Heaven far = exceeds what=20 we can merit, it will always be true that our behaviour is not = indifferent=20 before God and therefore is not indifferent for the unfolding of = history.=20 We can open ourselves and the world and allow God to enter: we can = open=20 ourselves to truth, to love, to what is good. This is what the = saints did,=20 those who, as =93God's fellow workers=94, contributed to the = world's salvation=20 (cf. 1 Cor 3:9; 1 Th 3:2). We can free our life and = the=20 world from the poisons and contaminations that could destroy the = present=20 and the future. We can uncover the sources of creation and keep = them=20 unsullied, and in this way we can make a right use of creation, = which=20 comes to us as a gift, according to its intrinsic requirements and = ultimate purpose. This makes sense even if outwardly we achieve = nothing or=20 seem powerless in the face of overwhelming hostile forces. So on = the one=20 hand, our actions engender hope for us and for others; but at the = same=20 time, it is the great hope based upon God's promises that gives us = courage=20 and directs our action in good times and bad.

36. Like action, suffering is a part of our human existence. = Suffering=20 stems partly from our finitude, and partly from the mass of sin = which has=20 accumulated over the course of history, and continues to grow = unabated=20 today. Certainly we must do whatever we can to reduce suffering: = to avoid=20 as far as possible the suffering of the innocent; to soothe pain; = to give=20 assistance in overcoming mental suffering. These are obligations = both in=20 justice and in love, and they are included among the fundamental=20 requirements of the Christian life and every truly human life. = Great=20 progress has been made in the battle against physical pain; yet = the=20 sufferings of the innocent and mental suffering have, if anything, = increased in recent decades. Indeed, we must do all we can to = overcome=20 suffering, but to banish it from the world altogether is not in = our power.=20 This is simply because we are unable to shake off our finitude and = because=20 none of us is capable of eliminating the power of evil, of sin = which, as=20 we plainly see, is a constant source of suffering. Only God is = able to do=20 this: only a God who personally enters history by making himself = man and=20 suffering within history. We know that this God exists, and hence = that=20 this power to =93take away the sin of the world=94 (Jn = 1:29) is present=20 in the world. Through faith in the existence of this power, hope = for the=20 world's healing has emerged in history. It is, however, hope=97not = yet=20 fulfilment; hope that gives us the courage to place ourselves on = the side=20 of good even in seemingly hopeless situations, aware that, as far = as the=20 external course of history is concerned, the power of sin will = continue to=20 be a terrible presence.

37. Let us return to our topic. We can try to limit suffering, = to fight=20 against it, but we cannot eliminate it. It is when we attempt to = avoid=20 suffering by withdrawing from anything that might involve hurt, = when we=20 try to spare ourselves the effort and pain of pursuing truth, = love, and=20 goodness, that we drift into a life of emptiness, in which there = may be=20 almost no pain, but the dark sensation of meaninglessness and = abandonment=20 is all the greater. It is not by sidestepping or fleeing from = suffering=20 that we are healed, but rather by our capacity for accepting it, = maturing=20 through it and finding meaning through union with Christ, who = suffered=20 with infinite love. In this context, I would like to quote a = passage from=20 a letter written by the Vietnamese martyr Paul Le-Bao-Tinh (=86 = 1857) which=20 illustrates this transformation of suffering through the power of = hope=20 springing from faith. =93I, Paul, in chains for the name of = Christ, wish to=20 relate to you the trials besetting me daily, in order that you may = be=20 inflamed with love for God and join with me in his praises, for = his mercy=20 is for ever (Ps 136 [135]). The prison here is a true image = of=20 everlasting Hell: to cruel tortures of every kind=97shackles, iron = chains,=20 manacles=97are added hatred, vengeance, calumnies, obscene speech, = quarrels,=20 evil acts, swearing, curses, as well as anguish and grief. But the = God who=20 once freed the three children from the fiery furnace is with me = always; he=20 has delivered me from these tribulations and made them sweet, for = his=20 mercy is for ever. In the midst of these torments, which = usually=20 terrify others, I am, by the grace of God, full of joy and = gladness,=20 because I am not alone =97Christ is with me ... How am I to bear = with the=20 spectacle, as each day I see emperors, mandarins, and their = retinue=20 blaspheming your holy name, O Lord, who are enthroned above the = Cherubim=20 and Seraphim? (cf. Ps 80:1 [79:2]). Behold, the pagans have = trodden=20 your Cross underfoot! Where is your glory? As I see all this, I = would, in=20 the ardent love I have for you, prefer to be torn limb from limb = and to=20 die as a witness to your love. O Lord, show your power, save me, = sustain=20 me, that in my infirmity your power may be shown and may be = glorified=20 before the nations ... Beloved brothers, as you hear all these = things may=20 you give endless thanks in joy to God, from whom every good = proceeds;=20 bless the Lord with me, for his mercy is for ever ... I write = these things=20 to you in order that your faith and mine may be united. In the = midst of=20 this storm I cast my anchor towards the throne of God, the anchor = that is=20 the lively hope in my heart=94[28]. This is a letter from =93Hell=94. It = lays bare all the=20 horror of a concentration camp, where to the torments inflicted by = tyrants=20 upon their victims is added the outbreak of evil in the victims=20 themselves, such that they in turn become further instruments of = their=20 persecutors' cruelty. This is indeed a letter from Hell, but it = also=20 reveals the truth of the Psalm text: =93If I go up to the heavens, = you are=20 there; if I sink to the nether world, you are present there ... If = I say,=20 =91Surely the darkness shall hide me, and night shall be my light' = =97for you=20 darkness itself is not dark, and night shines as the day; darkness = and=20 light are the same=94 (Ps 139 [138]:8-12; cf. also Ps = 23=20 [22]:4). Christ descended into =93Hell=94 and is therefore close = to those cast=20 into it, transforming their darkness into light. Suffering and = torment is=20 still terrible and well- nigh unbearable. Yet the star of hope has = risen=97the anchor of the heart reaches the very throne of God. = Instead of=20 evil being unleashed within man, the light shines victorious:=20 suffering=97without ceasing to be suffering=97becomes, despite = everything, a=20 hymn of praise.

38. The true measure of humanity is essentially determined in=20 relationship to suffering and to the sufferer. This holds true = both for=20 the individual and for society. A society unable to accept its = suffering=20 members and incapable of helping to share their suffering and to = bear it=20 inwardly through =93com-passion=94 is a cruel and inhuman society. = Yet society=20 cannot accept its suffering members and support them in their = trials=20 unless individuals are capable of doing so themselves; moreover, = the=20 individual cannot accept another's suffering unless he personally = is able=20 to find meaning in suffering, a path of purification and growth in = maturity, a journey of hope. Indeed, to accept the =93other=94 who = suffers,=20 means that I take up his suffering in such a way that it becomes = mine=20 also. Because it has now become a shared suffering, though, in = which=20 another person is present, this suffering is penetrated by the = light of=20 love. The Latin word con-solatio, =93consolation=94, = expresses this=20 beautifully. It suggests being with the other in his = solitude, so=20 that it ceases to be solitude. Furthermore, the capacity to accept = suffering for the sake of goodness, truth and justice is an = essential=20 criterion of humanity, because if my own well-being and safety are = ultimately more important than truth and justice, then the power = of the=20 stronger prevails, then violence and untruth reign supreme. Truth = and=20 justice must stand above my comfort and physical well-being, or = else my=20 life itself becomes a lie. In the end, even the =93yes=94 to love = is a source=20 of suffering, because love always requires expropriations of my = =93I=94, in=20 which I allow myself to be pruned and wounded. Love simply cannot = exist=20 without this painful renunciation of myself, for otherwise it = becomes pure=20 selfishness and thereby ceases to be love.

39. To suffer with the other and for others; to suffer for the = sake of=20 truth and justice; to suffer out of love and in order to become a = person=20 who truly loves=97these are fundamental elements of humanity, and = to abandon=20 them would destroy man himself. Yet once again the question = arises: are we=20 capable of this? Is the other important enough to warrant my = becoming, on=20 his account, a person who suffers? Does truth matter to me enough = to make=20 suffering worthwhile? Is the promise of love so great that it = justifies=20 the gift of myself? In the history of humanity, it was the = Christian faith=20 that had the particular merit of bringing forth within man a new = and=20 deeper capacity for these kinds of suffering that are decisive for = his=20 humanity. The Christian faith has shown us that truth, justice and = love=20 are not simply ideals, but enormously weighty realities. It has = shown us=20 that God =97Truth and Love in person=97desired to suffer for us = and with us.=20 Bernard of Clairvaux coined the marvellous expression: = Impassibilis est=20 Deus, sed non incompassibilis[29]=97God cannot suffer, but he can suffer = with.=20 Man is worth so much to God that he himself became man in order = to=20 suffer with man in an utterly real way=97in flesh and = blood=97as is=20 revealed to us in the account of Jesus's Passion. Hence in all = human=20 suffering we are joined by one who experiences and carries that=20 suffering with us; hence con-solatio is present in = all=20 suffering, the consolation of God's compassionate love=97and so = the star of=20 hope rises. Certainly, in our many different sufferings and trials = we=20 always need the lesser and greater hopes too=97a kind visit, the = healing of=20 internal and external wounds, a favourable resolution of a crisis, = and so=20 on. In our lesser trials these kinds of hope may even be = sufficient. But=20 in truly great trials, where I must make a definitive decision to = place=20 the truth before my own welfare, career and possessions, I need = the=20 certitude of that true, great hope of which we have spoken here. = For this=20 too we need witnesses=97martyrs=97who have given themselves = totally, so as to=20 show us the way=97day after day. We need them if we are to prefer = goodness=20 to comfort, even in the little choices we face each day=97knowing = that this=20 is how we live life to the full. Let us say it once again: the = capacity to=20 suffer for the sake of the truth is the measure of humanity. Yet = this=20 capacity to suffer depends on the type and extent of the hope that = we bear=20 within us and build upon. The saints were able to make the great = journey=20 of human existence in the way that Christ had done before them, = because=20 they were brimming with great hope.

40. I would like to add here another brief comment with some = relevance=20 for everyday living. There used to be a form of devotion=97perhaps = less=20 practised today but quite widespread not long ago=97that included = the idea=20 of =93offering up=94 the minor daily hardships that continually = strike at us=20 like irritating =93jabs=94, thereby giving them a meaning. Of = course, there=20 were some exaggerations and perhaps unhealthy applications of this = devotion, but we need to ask ourselves whether there may not after = all=20 have been something essential and helpful contained within it. = What does=20 it mean to offer something up? Those who did so were convinced = that they=20 could insert these little annoyances into Christ's great = =93com-passion=94 so=20 that they somehow became part of the treasury of compassion so = greatly=20 needed by the human race. In this way, even the small = inconveniences of=20 daily life could acquire meaning and contribute to the economy of = good and=20 of human love. Maybe we should consider whether it might be = judicious to=20 revive this practice ourselves.

III. Judgement as a setting for learning and = practising=20 hope

41. At the conclusion of the central section of the Church's = great=20 Credo=97the part that recounts the mystery of Christ, from = his=20 eternal birth of the Father and his temporal birth of the Virgin = Mary,=20 through his Cross and Resurrection to the second coming=97we find = the=20 phrase: =93he will come again in glory to judge the living and the = dead=94.=20 From the earliest times, the prospect of the Judgement has = influenced=20 Christians in their daily living as a criterion by which to order = their=20 present life, as a summons to their conscience, and at the same = time as=20 hope in God's justice. Faith in Christ has never looked merely = backwards=20 or merely upwards, but always also forwards to the hour of justice = that=20 the Lord repeatedly proclaimed. This looking ahead has given = Christianity=20 its importance for the present moment. In the arrangement of = Christian=20 sacred buildings, which were intended to make visible the historic = and=20 cosmic breadth of faith in Christ, it became customary to depict = the Lord=20 returning as a king=97the symbol of hope=97at the east end; while = the west=20 wall normally portrayed the Last Judgement as a symbol of our=20 responsibility for our lives=97a scene which followed and = accompanied the=20 faithful as they went out to resume their daily routine. As the=20 iconography of the Last Judgement developed, however, more and = more=20 prominence was given to its ominous and frightening aspects, which = obviously held more fascination for artists than the splendour of = hope,=20 often all too well concealed beneath the horrors.

42. In the modern era, the idea of the Last Judgement has faded = into=20 the background: Christian faith has been individualized and = primarily=20 oriented towards the salvation of the believer's own soul, while=20 reflection on world history is largely dominated by the idea of = progress.=20 The fundamental content of awaiting a final Judgement, however, = has not=20 disappeared: it has simply taken on a totally different form. The = atheism=20 of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is=97in its origins and = aims=97a=20 type of moralism: a protest against the injustices of the world = and of=20 world history. A world marked by so much injustice, innocent = suffering,=20 and cynicism of power cannot be the work of a good God. A God with = responsibility for such a world would not be a just God, much less = a good=20 God. It is for the sake of morality that this God has to be = contested.=20 Since there is no God to create justice, it seems man himself is = now=20 called to establish justice. If in the face of this world's = suffering,=20 protest against God is understandable, the claim that humanity can = and=20 must do what no God actually does or is able to do is both = presumptuous=20 and intrinsically false. It is no accident that this idea has led = to the=20 greatest forms of cruelty and violations of justice; rather, it is = grounded in the intrinsic falsity of the claim. A world which has = to=20 create its own justice is a world without hope. No one and nothing = can=20 answer for centuries of suffering. No one and nothing can = guarantee that=20 the cynicism of power=97whatever beguiling ideological mask it = adopts=97will=20 cease to dominate the world. This is why the great thinkers of the = Frankfurt School, Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno, were = equally=20 critical of atheism and theism. Horkheimer radically excluded the=20 possibility of ever finding a this-worldly substitute for God, = while at=20 the same time he rejected the image of a good and just God. In an = extreme=20 radicalization of the Old Testament prohibition of images, he = speaks of a=20 =93longing for the totally Other=94 that remains inaccessible=97a = cry of=20 yearning directed at world history. Adorno also firmly upheld this = total=20 rejection of images, which naturally meant the exclusion of any = =93image=94 of=20 a loving God. On the other hand, he also constantly emphasized = this=20 =93negative=94 dialectic and asserted that justice =97true = justice=97would require=20 a world =93where not only present suffering would be wiped out, = but also=20 that which is irrevocably past would be undone=94[30]. This, would mean, however=97to express = it with=20 positive and hence, for him, inadequate symbols=97that there can = be no=20 justice without a resurrection of the dead. Yet this would have to = involve=20 =93the resurrection of the flesh, something that is totally = foreign to=20 idealism and the realm of Absolute spirit=94[31].

43. Christians likewise can and must constantly learn from the = strict=20 rejection of images that is contained in God's first commandment = (cf.=20 Ex 20:4). The truth of negative theology was highlighted by = the Fourth=20 Lateran Council, which explicitly stated that however great the = similarity=20 that may be established between Creator and creature, the = dissimilarity=20 between them is always greater[32]. In any case, for the believer the = rejection of=20 images cannot be carried so far that one ends up, as Horkheimer = and Adorno=20 would like, by saying =93no=94 to both theses=97theism and = atheism. God has=20 given himself an =93image=94: in Christ who was made man. In him = who was=20 crucified, the denial of false images of God is taken to an = extreme. God=20 now reveals his true face in the figure of the sufferer who shares = man's=20 God-forsaken condition by taking it upon himself. This innocent = sufferer=20 has attained the certitude of hope: there is a God, and God can = create=20 justice in a way that we cannot conceive, yet we can begin to = grasp it=20 through faith. Yes, there is a resurrection of the flesh[33]. There is justice[34]. There is an =93undoing=94 of past = suffering, a=20 reparation that sets things aright. For this reason, faith in the = Last=20 Judgement is first and foremost hope=97the need for which was made = abundantly clear in the upheavals of recent centuries. I am = convinced that=20 the question of justice constitutes the essential argument, or in = any case=20 the strongest argument, in favour of faith in eternal life. The = purely=20 individual need for a fulfilment that is denied to us in this = life, for an=20 everlasting love that we await, is certainly an important motive = for=20 believing that man was made for eternity; but only in connection = with the=20 impossibility that the injustice of history should be the final = word does=20 the necessity for Christ's return and for new life become fully=20 convincing.

44. To protest against God in the name of justice is not = helpful. A=20 world without God is a world without hope (cf. Eph 2:12). = Only God=20 can create justice. And faith gives us the certainty that he does = so. The=20 image of the Last Judgement is not primarily an image of terror, = but an=20 image of hope; for us it may even be the decisive image of hope. = Is it not=20 also a frightening image? I would say: it is an image that evokes=20 responsibility, an image, therefore, of that fear of which Saint = Hilary=20 spoke when he said that all our fear has its place in love[35]. God is justice and creates justice. This = is our=20 consolation and our hope. And in his justice there is also grace. = This we=20 know by turning our gaze to the crucified and risen Christ. Both = these=20 things=97justice and grace=97must be seen in their correct inner = relationship.=20 Grace does not cancel out justice. It does not make wrong into = right. It=20 is not a sponge which wipes everything away, so that whatever = someone has=20 done on earth ends up being of equal value. Dostoevsky, for = example, was=20 right to protest against this kind of Heaven and this kind of = grace in his=20 novel The Brothers Karamazov. Evildoers, in the end, do not = sit at=20 table at the eternal banquet beside their victims without = distinction, as=20 though nothing had happened. Here I would like to quote a passage = from=20 Plato which expresses a premonition of just judgement that in many = respects remains true and salutary for Christians too. Albeit = using=20 mythological images, he expresses the truth with an unambiguous = clarity,=20 saying that in the end souls will stand naked before the judge. It = no=20 longer matters what they once were in history, but only what they = are in=20 truth: =93Often, when it is the king or some other monarch or = potentate that=20 he (the judge) has to deal with, he finds that there is no = soundness in=20 the soul whatever; he finds it scourged and scarred by the various = acts of=20 perjury and wrong-doing ...; it is twisted and warped by lies and = vanity,=20 and nothing is straight because truth has had no part in its = development.=20 Power, luxury, pride, and debauchery have left it so full of = disproportion=20 and ugliness that when he has inspected it (he) sends it straight = to=20 prison, where on its arrival it will undergo the appropriate = punishment=20 ... Sometimes, though, the eye of the judge lights on a different = soul=20 which has lived in purity and truth ... then he is struck with = admiration=20 and sends him to the isles of the blessed=94[36]. In the parable of the rich man and = Lazarus (cf.=20 Lk 16:19-31), Jesus admonishes us through the image of a soul=20 destroyed by arrogance and opulence, who has created an impassable = chasm=20 between himself and the poor man; the chasm of being trapped = within=20 material pleasures; the chasm of forgetting the other, of = incapacity to=20 love, which then becomes a burning and unquenchable thirst. We = must note=20 that in this parable Jesus is not referring to the final destiny = after the=20 Last Judgement, but is taking up a notion found, inter = alia, in=20 early Judaism, namely that of an intermediate state between death = and=20 resurrection, a state in which the final sentence is yet to be = pronounced.=20

45. This early Jewish idea of an intermediate state includes = the view=20 that these souls are not simply in a sort of temporary custody = but, as the=20 parable of the rich man illustrates, are already being punished or = are=20 experiencing a provisional form of bliss. There is also the idea = that this=20 state can involve purification and healing which mature the soul = for=20 communion with God. The early Church took up these concepts, and = in the=20 Western Church they gradually developed into the doctrine of = Purgatory. We=20 do not need to examine here the complex historical paths of this=20 development; it is enough to ask what it actually means. With = death, our=20 life-choice becomes definitive=97our life stands before the judge. = Our=20 choice, which in the course of an entire life takes on a certain = shape,=20 can have a variety of forms. There can be people who have totally=20 destroyed their desire for truth and readiness to love, people for = whom=20 everything has become a lie, people who have lived for hatred and = have=20 suppressed all love within themselves. This is a terrifying = thought, but=20 alarming profiles of this type can be seen in certain figures of = our own=20 history. In such people all would be beyond remedy and the = destruction of=20 good would be irrevocable: this is what we mean by the word = Hell[37]. On the other hand there can be people = who are=20 utterly pure, completely permeated by God, and thus fully open to = their=20 neighbours=97people for whom communion with God even now gives = direction to=20 their entire being and whose journey towards God only brings to = fulfilment=20 what they already are[38].

46. Yet we know from experience that neither case is normal in = human=20 life. For the great majority of people=97we may suppose=97there = remains in the=20 depths of their being an ultimate interior openness to truth, to = love, to=20 God. In the concrete choices of life, however, it is covered over = by ever=20 new compromises with evil=97much filth covers purity, but the = thirst for=20 purity remains and it still constantly re-emerges from all that is = base=20 and remains present in the soul. What happens to such individuals = when=20 they appear before the Judge? Will all the impurity they have = amassed=20 through life suddenly cease to matter? What else might occur? = Saint Paul,=20 in his First Letter to the Corinthians, gives us an idea of = the=20 differing impact of God's judgement according to each person's = particular=20 circumstances. He does this using images which in some way try to = express=20 the invisible, without it being possible for us to conceptualize = these=20 images=97simply because we can neither see into the world beyond = death nor=20 do we have any experience of it. Paul begins by saying that = Christian life=20 is built upon a common foundation: Jesus Christ. This foundation = endures.=20 If we have stood firm on this foundation and built our life upon = it, we=20 know that it cannot be taken away from us even in death. Then Paul = continues: =93Now if any one builds on the foundation with gold, = silver,=20 precious stones, wood, hay, straw=97each man's work will become = manifest;=20 for the Day will disclose it, because it will be revealed with = fire, and=20 the fire will test what sort of work each one has done. If the = work which=20 any man has built on the foundation survives, he will receive a = reward. If=20 any man's work is burned up, he will suffer loss, though he = himself will=20 be saved, but only as through fire=94 (1 Cor 3:12-15). In = this text,=20 it is in any case evident that our salvation can take different = forms,=20 that some of what is built may be burned down, that in order to be = saved=20 we personally have to pass through =93fire=94 so as to become = fully open to=20 receiving God and able to take our place at the table of the = eternal=20 marriage-feast.

47. Some recent theologians are of the opinion that the fire = which both=20 burns and saves is Christ himself, the Judge and Saviour. The = encounter=20 with him is the decisive act of judgement. Before his gaze all = falsehood=20 melts away. This encounter with him, as it burns us, transforms = and frees=20 us, allowing us to become truly ourselves. All that we build = during our=20 lives can prove to be mere straw, pure bluster, and it collapses. = Yet in=20 the pain of this encounter, when the impurity and sickness of our = lives=20 become evident to us, there lies salvation. His gaze, the touch of = his=20 heart heals us through an undeniably painful transformation =93as = through=20 fire=94. But it is a blessed pain, in which the holy power of his = love sears=20 through us like a flame, enabling us to become totally ourselves = and thus=20 totally of God. In this way the inter-relation between justice and = grace=20 also becomes clear: the way we live our lives is not immaterial, = but our=20 defilement does not stain us for ever if we have at least = continued to=20 reach out towards Christ, towards truth and towards love. Indeed, = it has=20 already been burned away through Christ's Passion. At the moment = of=20 judgement we experience and we absorb the overwhelming power of = his love=20 over all the evil in the world and in ourselves. The pain of love = becomes=20 our salvation and our joy. It is clear that we cannot calculate = the=20 =93duration=94 of this transforming burning in terms of the = chronological=20 measurements of this world. The transforming =93moment=94 of this = encounter=20 eludes earthly time-reckoning=97it is the heart's time, it is the = time of=20 =93passage=94 to communion with God in the Body of Christ[39]. The judgement of God is hope, both = because it is=20 justice and because it is grace. If it were merely grace, making = all=20 earthly things cease to matter, God would still owe us an answer = to the=20 question about justice=97the crucial question that we ask of = history and of=20 God. If it were merely justice, in the end it could bring only = fear to us=20 all. The incarnation of God in Christ has so closely linked the = two=20 together=97judgement and grace=97that justice is firmly = established: we all=20 work out our salvation =93with fear and trembling=94 (Phil = 2:12).=20 Nevertheless grace allows us all to hope, and to go trustfully to = meet the=20 Judge whom we know as our =93advocate=94, or parakletos = (cf. 1 Jn=20 2:1).

48. A further point must be mentioned here, because it is = important for=20 the practice of Christian hope. Early Jewish thought includes the = idea=20 that one can help the deceased in their intermediate state through = prayer=20 (see for example 2 Macc 12:38-45; first century BC). The = equivalent=20 practice was readily adopted by Christians and is common to the = Eastern=20 and Western Church. The East does not recognize the purifying and=20 expiatory suffering of souls in the afterlife, but it does = acknowledge=20 various levels of beatitude and of suffering in the intermediate = state.=20 The souls of the departed can, however, receive =93solace and = refreshment=94=20 through the Eucharist, prayer and almsgiving. The belief that love = can=20 reach into the afterlife, that reciprocal giving and receiving is=20 possible, in which our affection for one another continues beyond = the=20 limits of death=97this has been a fundamental conviction of = Christianity=20 throughout the ages and it remains a source of comfort today. Who = would=20 not feel the need to convey to their departed loved ones a sign of = kindness, a gesture of gratitude or even a request for pardon? Now = a=20 further question arises: if =93Purgatory=94 is simply purification = through=20 fire in the encounter with the Lord, Judge and Saviour, how can a = third=20 person intervene, even if he or she is particularly close to the = other?=20 When we ask such a question, we should recall that no man is an = island,=20 entire of itself. Our lives are involved with one another, through = innumerable interactions they are linked together. No one lives = alone. No=20 one sins alone. No one is saved alone. The lives of others = continually=20 spill over into mine: in what I think, say, do and achieve. And=20 conversely, my life spills over into that of others: for better = and for=20 worse. So my prayer for another is not something extraneous to = that=20 person, something external, not even after death. In the=20 interconnectedness of Being, my gratitude to the other=97my prayer = for=20 him=97can play a small part in his purification. And for that = there is no=20 need to convert earthly time into God's time: in the communion of = souls=20 simple terrestrial time is superseded. It is never too late to = touch the=20 heart of another, nor is it ever in vain. In this way we further = clarify=20 an important element of the Christian concept of hope. Our hope is = always=20 essentially also hope for others; only thus is it truly hope for = me too[40]. As Christians we should never limit = ourselves to=20 asking: how can I save myself? We should also ask: what can I do = in order=20 that others may be saved and that for them too the star of hope = may rise?=20 Then I will have done my utmost for my own personal salvation as = well.=20

Mary, Star of Hope

49. With a hymn composed in the eighth or ninth century, thus = for over=20 a thousand years, the Church has greeted Mary, the Mother of God, = as =93Star=20 of the Sea=94: Ave maris stella. Human life is a journey. = Towards=20 what destination? How do we find the way? Life is like a voyage on = the sea=20 of history, often dark and stormy, a voyage in which we watch for = the=20 stars that indicate the route. The true stars of our life are the = people=20 who have lived good lives. They are lights of hope. Certainly, = Jesus=20 Christ is the true light, the sun that has risen above all the = shadows of=20 history. But to reach him we also need lights close by=97people = who shine=20 with his light and so guide us along our way. Who more than Mary = could be=20 a star of hope for us? With her =93yes=94 she opened the door of = our world to=20 God himself; she became the living Ark of the Covenant, in whom = God took=20 flesh, became one of us, and pitched his tent among us (cf. = Jn=20 1:14).

50. So we cry to her: Holy Mary, you belonged to the humble and = great=20 souls of Israel who, like Simeon, were =93looking for the = consolation of=20 Israel=94 (Lk 2:25) and hoping, like Anna, =93for the = redemption of=20 Jerusalem=94 (Lk 2:38). Your life was thoroughly imbued = with the=20 sacred scriptures of Israel which spoke of hope, of the promise = made to=20 Abraham and his descendants (cf. Lk 1:55). In this way we = can=20 appreciate the holy fear that overcame you when the angel of the = Lord=20 appeared to you and told you that you would give birth to the One = who was=20 the hope of Israel, the One awaited by the world. Through you, = through=20 your =93yes=94, the hope of the ages became reality, entering this = world and=20 its history. You bowed low before the greatness of this task and = gave your=20 consent: =93Behold, I am the handmaid of the Lord; let it be to me = according=20 to your word=94 (Lk 1:38). When you hastened with holy joy = across the=20 mountains of Judea to see your cousin Elizabeth, you became the = image of=20 the Church to come, which carries the hope of the world in her = womb across=20 the mountains of history. But alongside the joy which, with = your=20 Magnificat, you proclaimed in word and song for all the = centuries to=20 hear, you also knew the dark sayings of the prophets about the = suffering=20 of the servant of God in this world. Shining over his birth in the = stable=20 at Bethlehem, there were angels in splendour who brought the good = news to=20 the shepherds, but at the same time the lowliness of God in this = world was=20 all too palpable. The old man Simeon spoke to you of the sword = which would=20 pierce your soul (cf. Lk 2:35), of the sign of = contradiction that=20 your Son would be in this world. Then, when Jesus began his public = ministry, you had to step aside, so that a new family could grow, = the=20 family which it was his mission to establish and which would be = made up of=20 those who heard his word and kept it (cf. Lk 11:27f).=20 Notwithstanding the great joy that marked the beginning of Jesus's = ministry, in the synagogue of Nazareth you must already have = experienced=20 the truth of the saying about the =93sign of contradiction=94 = (cf. Lk=20 4:28ff). In this way you saw the growing power of hostility = and=20 rejection which built up around Jesus until the hour of the Cross, = when=20 you had to look upon the Saviour of the world, the heir of David, = the Son=20 of God dying like a failure, exposed to mockery, between = criminals. Then=20 you received the word of Jesus: =93Woman, behold, your Son!=94 = (Jn=20 19:26). From the Cross you received a new mission. From the Cross = you=20 became a mother in a new way: the mother of all those who believe = in your=20 Son Jesus and wish to follow him. The sword of sorrow pierced your = heart.=20 Did hope die? Did the world remain definitively without light, and = life=20 without purpose? At that moment, deep down, you probably listened = again to=20 the word spoken by the angel in answer to your fear at the time of = the=20 Annunciation: =93Do not be afraid, Mary!=94 (Lk 1:30). How = many times=20 had the Lord, your Son, said the same thing to his disciples: do = not be=20 afraid! In your heart, you heard this word again during the night = of=20 Golgotha. Before the hour of his betrayal he had said to his = disciples:=20 =93Be of good cheer, I have overcome the world=94 (Jn = 16:33). =93Let not=20 your hearts be troubled, neither let them be afraid=94 (Jn = 14:27).=20 =93Do not be afraid, Mary!=94 In that hour at Nazareth the angel = had also said=20 to you: =93Of his kingdom there will be no end=94 (Lk = 1:33). Could it=20 have ended before it began? No, at the foot of the Cross, on the = strength=20 of Jesus's own word, you became the mother of believers. In this = faith,=20 which even in the darkness of Holy Saturday bore the certitude of = hope,=20 you made your way towards Easter morning. The joy of the = Resurrection=20 touched your heart and united you in a new way to the disciples, = destined=20 to become the family of Jesus through faith. In this way you were = in the=20 midst of the community of believers, who in the days following the = Ascension prayed with one voice for the gift of the Holy Spirit = (cf.=20 Acts 1:14) and then received that gift on the day of = Pentecost. The=20 =93Kingdom=94 of Jesus was not as might have been imagined. It = began in that=20 hour, and of this =93Kingdom=94 there will be no end. Thus you = remain in the=20 midst of the disciples as their Mother, as the Mother of hope. = Holy Mary,=20 Mother of God, our Mother, teach us to believe, to hope, to love = with you.=20 Show us the way to his Kingdom! Star of the Sea, shine upon us and = guide=20 us on our way!

Given in Rome, at Saint Peter's, on 30 November, the Feast = of Saint=20 Andrew the Apostle, in the year 2007, the third of my = Pontificate.

BENEDICTUS PP. XVI

[1] Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum VI, no. = 26003.

[2] Cf. Dogmatic Poems, V, 53-64: PG = 37,=20 428-429.

[3] Cf. Catechism of = the=20 Catholic Church, 1817-1821.

[4] Summa Theologiae, II-IIae, = q.4,=20 a.1.

[5] H. K=F6ster in Theological Dictionary of = the New=20 Testament VIII (1972), p.586.

[6] De excessu fratris sui Satyri, II, 47: = CSEL=20 73, 274.

[7] Ibid., II, 46: CSEL 73, = 273.

[8] Cf. Ep. 130 Ad Probam 14, 25-15, 28: = CSEL=20 44, 68-73.

[9] Cf. Catechism = of the=20 Catholic Church, = 1025.

[10] Jean Giono, Les vraies richesses, = Paris 1936,=20 Preface, quoted in Henri de Lubac, Catholicisme. Aspects = sociaux du=20 dogme, Paris 1983, p. VII.

[11] Ep. 130 Ad Probam 13, 24: = CSEL 44,=20 67.

[12] Sententiae III, 118: CCL = 6/2,=20 215.

[13] Cf. ibid. III, 71: CCL 6/2,=20 107-108.

[14] Novum Organum I, 117.

[15] Cf. ibid. I, 129.

[16] Cf. New Atlantis.

[17] In Werke IV, ed. W. Weischedel = (1956), p.777.=20 The essay on =93The Victory of the Good over the Evil Principle=94 = constitutes=20 the third chapter of the text Die Religion innerhalb der = Grenzen der=20 blo=DFen Vernunft (=93Religion within the Limits of Reason = Alone=94), which=20 Kant published in 1793.

[18] I. Kant, Das Ende aller Dinge, in = Werke=20 VI, ed. W. Weischedel (1964), p.190.

[19] Chapters on charity, = Centuria 1, ch.=20 1: PG 90, 965.

[20] Cf. ibid.: PG 90, = 962-966.

[21] Conf. X 43, 70: CSEL 33, = 279.

[22] Sermo 340, 3: PL 38, = 1484; cf. F.=20 Van der Meer, Augustine the Bishop, London and New York = 1961,=20 p.268.

[23] Sermo 339, 4: PL 38, = 1481.

[24] Conf. X 43, 69: CSEL 33, = 279.

[25] Cf. Catechism = of the=20 Catholic Church, = 2657.

[26] Cf. In 1 Ioannis 4, 6: PL 35, = 2008f.

[27] Testimony of Hope, Boston 2000, = pp.121ff.

[28] The Liturgy of the Hours, Office of = Readings, 24=20 November.

[29] Sermones in Cant., Sermo 26, = 5: PL=20 183, 906.

[30] Negative Dialektik (1966), = Third part,=20 III, 11, in Gesammelte Schriften VI, Frankfurt am Main = 1973,=20 p.395.

[31] Ibid., Second part, p.207.

[32] DS 806.

[33] Cf. Catechism of the Catholic = Church, 988-1004.

[34] Cf. ibid.,=20 1040.

[35] Cf. Tractatus super Psalmos, Ps = 127,=20 1-3: CSEL 22, 628-630.

[36] Gorgias 525a-526c.

[37] Cf. Catechism of = the=20 Catholic Church, 1033-1037.

[38] Cf. ibid.,=20 1023-1029.

[39] Cf. Catechism of = the=20 Catholic Church, 1030-1032.

[40] Cf. Catechism = of the=20 Catholic Church, = 1032.

 

=A9=20 Copyright 2007 - Libreria Editrice Vaticana

  =20

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